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Penerapan Kompetensi Sosial dan Emosional (KSE) dalam Pembelajaran

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Selasa, Maret 05, 2024

Penerapan Kompetensi Sosial dan Emosional (KSE) dalam pembelajaran merupakan pendekatan yang sangat berharga.

KSE membantu mengembangkan keterampilan sosial dan emosional pada siswa, mempersiapkan mereka untuk menghadapi tantangan kehidupan sehari-hari. Berikut beberapa hal yang perlu dipahami tentang penerapan KSE dalam pembelajaran di Sekolah Dasar (SD):

Pengertian KSE

Kompetensi Sosial dan Emosional (KSE) adalah keterampilan yang melibatkan kesadaran diri, pengelolaan emosi, kemampuan berhubungan dengan orang lain, dan pengambilan keputusan yang bertanggung jawab.

KSE membantu siswa mengenali dan mengelola perasaan, membangun hubungan yang sehat, serta mengambil keputusan yang baik.

Kerangka KSE

Kesadaran Diri: Memahami perasaan, emosi, dan nilai-nilai diri sendiri.
Manajemen Diri: Mengelola emosi, pikiran, dan perilaku secara efektif.
Kesadaran Sosial: Memahami sudut pandang orang lain dan berempati.
Keterampilan Berelasi: Membangun hubungan yang positif dan suportif.
Pengambilan Keputusan yang Bertanggung Jawab: Memilih tindakan berdasarkan etika dan kesejahteraan psikologis.

Implementasi KSE di Kelas

Protokol Awal Masuk Kelas: Terapkan protokol, budaya, atau tata tertib yang terintegrasi sejak awal masuk kelas. Contohnya, dengan mengajarkan murid untuk menyapa, berpartisipasi, bernyanyi, dan berusaha.
Kolaborasi dengan Siswa: Guru harus berkolaborasi dengan siswa dan memposisikan diri sebagai teman, pemantau, atau manajer.
Integrasi KSE dalam Pembelajaran: KSE harus terintegrasi dalam praktik mengajar dan interaksi dengan murid.
Perubahan Kebijakan Sekolah: Sekolah perlu mengubah kebijakan dan ekspektasi terhadap murid.

Tujuan KSE

Menciptakan lingkungan belajar yang menyenangkan.
Memenuhi lima kebutuhan hidup manusia: bertahan hidup, kasih sayang, kebebasan, kesenangan, dan penguasaan.

Apa saja manfaat KSE?

Manfaat Kompetensi Sosial dan Emosional (KSE) sangat beragam dan memainkan peran penting dalam perkembangan siswa. Berikut beberapa manfaat KSE:

Peningkatan Hubungan Sosial:

KSE membantu siswa memahami perasaan orang lain, berempati, dan berinteraksi dengan baik.
Mereka dapat membangun hubungan yang sehat dengan teman sekelas, guru, dan orang tua.

Kemampuan Mengelola Emosi:

KSE membantu siswa mengenali dan mengelola emosi mereka sendiri.
Mereka belajar cara mengatasi stres, kecemasan, dan marah.
Keterampilan Berkomunikasi yang Efektif:
KSE membantu siswa mengembangkan keterampilan berbicara, mendengarkan, dan mengekspresikan diri.
Mereka dapat berkomunikasi dengan jelas dan memahami pesan orang lain.

Peningkatan Kinerja Akademis:

Siswa yang memiliki KSE yang baik cenderung lebih fokus, bersemangat, dan memiliki motivasi belajar yang tinggi.
Mereka dapat mengatasi hambatan belajar dengan lebih baik.

Kemampuan Mengatasi Konflik:

KSE membantu siswa menyelesaikan konflik dengan cara yang konstruktif.
Mereka belajar menghargai perbedaan pendapat dan mencari solusi bersama.

Penguatan Kemandirian:

KSE membantu siswa mengambil keputusan yang bertanggung jawab.
Mereka belajar menghormati diri sendiri dan orang lain.

Persiapan untuk Kehidupan Dewasa:

KSE membekali siswa dengan keterampilan yang relevan untuk menghadapi tantangan kehidupan sehari-hari.
Mereka lebih siap menghadapi situasi sosial dan emosional di masa depan.

Bagaimana cara mengukur kemampuan KSE siswa?

Kompetensi Sosial dan Emosional (KSE) merupakan aspek penting dalam perkembangan siswa. Bagaimana kita mengukur kemampuan KSE mereka? Berikut beberapa cara efektif:

Tes Tertulis:

Tes tertulis dapat mencakup pertanyaan tentang kesadaran diri, manajemen emosi, keterampilan berkomunikasi, dan pengambilan keputusan. Contoh: Siswa diminta menjawab pertanyaan terkait situasi sosial dan emosional.

Diskusi Kelompok:

Diskusi kelompok memungkinkan siswa berbicara tentang pengalaman pribadi, emosi, dan hubungan dengan orang lain. Guru dapat mengamati bagaimana siswa berinteraksi dan berempati.

Proyek Kelompok:

Siswa dapat bekerja sama dalam proyek yang melibatkan situasi sosial dan emosional. Contoh: Membuat presentasi tentang mengelola konflik atau memahami perbedaan.

Kuis Interaktif:

Kuis interaktif dapat diselenggarakan secara daring atau langsung di kelas. Pertanyaan dapat mencakup skenario sehari-hari yang menguji kemampuan KSE.

Observasi Langsung:

Guru mengamati perilaku siswa dalam situasi nyata. Contoh: Bagaimana siswa berinteraksi dengan teman sekelas atau mengatasi masalah.

Angket Self-Efficacy:

Angket self-efficacy mengukur keyakinan siswa terhadap kemampuan mereka dalam mengelola emosi dan hubungan sosial. Pertanyaan dapat berkaitan dengan situasi konkret yang relevan.

Apakah ada tantangan dalam penerapan KSE di SD?

Tentu, ada beberapa tantangan yang dihadapi dalam penerapan Kompetensi Sosial dan Emosional (KSE) di Sekolah Dasar (SD). Berikut beberapa di antaranya:

Kurikulum yang Padat:

Kurikulum SD sering kali padat dengan materi akademis seperti matematika, bahasa, dan sains. Guru perlu menemukan cara mengintegrasikan KSE tanpa mengorbankan materi pelajaran inti.

Keterbatasan Waktu:

Waktu pembelajaran terbatas, dan guru harus membagi waktu dengan bijaksana antara pembelajaran akademis dan pengembangan KSE. Terkadang KSE hanya mendapatkan perhatian terbatas dalam jadwal harian.

Kesiapan Guru:

Tidak semua guru memiliki pelatihan khusus dalam mengajar KSE. Guru perlu memahami konsep KSE dan memiliki keterampilan untuk mengajarkannya dengan efektif.

Evaluasi KSE:

Mengukur kemajuan KSE lebih sulit daripada mengukur pengetahuan akademis. Tidak ada ujian standar yang dapat mengukur secara akurat keterampilan sosial dan emosional siswa.

Keterlibatan Orang Tua:

Orang tua memainkan peran penting dalam mengembangkan KSE anak-anak. Tantangannya adalah bagaimana melibatkan orang tua dalam mendukung pengembangan KSE di rumah.

Perbedaan Individu:

Setiap siswa memiliki kebutuhan dan tingkat perkembangan yang berbeda. Guru harus memahami perbedaan ini dan mengadaptasi pendekatan KSE sesuai dengan kebutuhan masing-masing siswa.

Meskipun ada tantangan, penerapan KSE di SD sangat berharga untuk membantu siswa tumbuh secara sosial dan emosional.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Cooperative language learning

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Jumat, Juni 11, 2021

Cooperative language learning Concept

Cooperative language learning is focused on the idea that teaching should make maximum use of cooperative activities and interactions. Fighting against older ideas that teaching should be teacher-fronted and that strong and weak students should be educated separately, cooperative language learning maintains that in cooperative group work students are likely to scaffold each other and therefore raise the language level of the class.

An interactive approach refers to language learning that is authentic and genuine and takes place between two or more people, and cooperative learning is the most frequent application of this approach. The goal of an interactive approach such as cooperative learning is to create meaningful learning experiences that will help students develop genuine fluency in another language. Cooperative learning consists of groups of students working together in a cooperative, as opposed to competitive, manner to complete a task, an activity, or a project. While working together, the students have meaningful interaction with one another in the target language. Both cooperative and collaborative learning refer to students working together in a group toward a goal, but collaborative groupings may also refer to teachers and students, parents and students, students and the community, or the school and the family collaborating.

Cooperative language learning is based on the idea that second language learning can be best done in heterogeneous groups, when all students work collaboratively and cooperatively for one common goal. It replaces the idea that students have to work competitively against one another. On the contrary, it rather supports the idea Vygotski claimed in his Sociocultural (S-C) Theory, which states that “Interaction not only facilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition.” (Saville-Troike 2006: 111).[1] Vygostki was of the opinion that social interaction is seen as the only way of learning a language sufficiently and therefore he came up with his idea of the zone of proximal development (ZPD), “an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potential only with assistance” (Saville-Troike 2006: 112). Taking Vygotski's idea where language learning is done with social interaction, cooperative language learning focuses on language learning in natural settings through the use of interaction in pairs or/and group work. This means that interaction within one heterogeneous group can lead to a maximum of language learning, if the students work collaboratively. To do so, they have to use the L2 and share the idea of achieving a common goal, which is not on the first side the learning the language, but solving the exercises. This means that the actual language learning process can be seen as a side effect of the task, because students have to use the foreign language just as a means of communication. That also lowers the anxiety of talking in a foreign language and therefore it encourages students to make use of it, but being less afraid of making mistakes.

Richards and Rodgers (2001: 193f.) premise 5 principles that underlie the interactive and cooperative nature of language and language learning:

"Humans are born to talk and communication is generally considered to be the primary purpose of language."
"... most talk/speech is organized as conversation."
"... conversation operates according to a certain agreedupon set of cooperative rules or 'maxims'."
"... one learns how these cooperative maxims are realized in one's native language through casual, everyday conversational interaction."
"... one learns how the maxims are realized in a second language through participation in cooperatively structured interactional activities."
Cooperative language learning puts these principles of language and language learning in the driver's seat.

Strategy of Cooperative Language Learning

English Skill Level: All

Grade Level: All

Also Called: Collaborative Language Learning, Interactive Language Learning

To implement cooperative learning, the teacher must decide whether cooperative activities will help meet the goals of the class. The teacher must also decide which type of cooperative activity to use. Cooperative activities might include peer tutoring, jigsaw activities in which different members of the group have different information that they must put together to find the results, group projects in which students work together to accomplish a task, and group projects in which students work independently but come together to complete the task. Then the teacher decides on one of many cooperative techniques to use, such as games, role-play, drama, projects, interviews, information gap activities, or opinion exchange.
The teacher decides how to put the groups together. Teachers might do this by counting off; by placing students in mixed-proficiency, similar-proficiency, or different or same language groups; or by allowing the students to choose their own partners. In general, the teacher should decide this ahead of time.
Once the teacher has decided on the cooperative activity, he or she explains to the group members what they will do. Sometimes each person in a group will be assigned a role such as recorder, leader, or negotiator. At times, it may also be necessary to model the technique and to explain why they will be working in groups. Then divide the class into groups.
Students begin, and the teacher checks with the groups to make sure that they understand what they are supposed to be doing. The teacher monitors the groups by walking around to make sure they stay on task if this is an in-class activity. He or she is also available to answer any questions or problems that may arise.
When the group is finished with its activity, which may take several minutes to several weeks depending on the activity, there should, in most cases, be a final product or discussion. Generally the final product, or parts of it, should be shared with the whole class. This might take the form of a formal presentation, a discussion, or a chance for everyone to ask questions.

Applications and Examples of Cooperative Language Learning

Group Activity in an EAP Bridge Course

Students are organized into mixed-language groups. They ask each other preview questions that prepare them to begin a group study of an academic area such as psychology, sociology, marketing, language learning, or agriculture. For example, if the topic were language learning, students might be asked to discuss the following:

What languages do you know?
How did you learn those languages?
Did you study them in school or learn them in some other way?
What way do you think is best to learn a language?
How old were you when you learned those languages?
Do you think age makes a difference?
What are some other variables that affect language learning?

As a group, describe your conclusions about the best ways to learn another language.

After students are finished discussing the preview questions, the teacher asks each group to share its conclusions with the other groups.
Students are given an article to read about language learning. They are told to mark any areas of the article they find confusing.
After reading the article, students meet in groups to discuss both the content and the mechanics of the article. First, students compare the areas of the article that they found confusing or difficult and ask for help from other group members. The teacher then asks the groups members what they found difficult or confusing about the article and clarifies any information that may begiving them difficulties.
Students are given a set of questions or exercises to do as follow-up to the article. Students can either do the exercises independently and then compare answers, or they can work on the exercises together. The teacher can put answers to exercises on the board or an overhead, or the students and teacher can discuss follow-up questions.
Students are assigned to do a group speech on language learning. Students must research their speech by finding one journal article, doing an interview, and finding information on the Internet. Students are given in-class time to work on organizing their speeches.
Students give their group speeches. Each person in the group must give part of the speech, but it is up to the group to decide how the speech will be organized and who will be responsible for each part.
Other class members are also asked to make written comments on the group speeches. After all speeches have been given, groups write up their comments regarding the other speeches and turn this in to the teacher.
At the end of group work, students are asked to assess their groups as well as their contribution to the group.
The teacher gives a group grade for both the speeches and the group participation as well as individual grades based on each student's work and participation in the group.

Tall Tales : Submitted by Megan Larsen, Luther College education student

This lesson is based on the book American Tall Tales by M. P. Osborne (Alfred A. Knopf, 1991). Groups of students perform different tall tales for the class. The teacher enters the classroom dressed as a character from a tale from American Tall Tales and tells that tall tale to the class.
The students are placed in groups of four or five. They can choose their groups by picking a numbered card; all students with the same number combine to form a group.
Each group chooses a tall tale and reports to the teacher which they have chosen. The teacher provides a copy of that particular story to the group. The groups read their stories aloud among themselves. Each group member will take a turn reading.
The members of the group make a list of the various characters in their tale. They then decide who will play each role and place that person's name next to the character's. The characters do not necessarily have to be people; a group member could play a tornado or Babe the Blue Ox. This list should be turned in to the teacher.
The groups rehearse acting out their tale. Students use their own words to act out the tale, although they can use language similar to that in the book. The teacher walks around the classroom helping groups and checking their progress.
After students have had a chance to rehearse, each group performs its tale for the class.
After each group has performed its tale, students write a journal entry on the various tall tales that were performed, as well as the specific tall tale their group performed. Students write about how they felt about working with their group to complete the final presentation and about what his or her personal role in the group. It can also include information that they have learned about tall tales so far.

Strengths of Cooperative Language Learning

When students are interacting in groups, they are required to use authentic and fairly fluent communications skills, which prepare them for the actual communication skills they will need in real life.

Weaknesses of Cooperative Language Learning

For group work to be successful, it must be carefully planned. A weakness in this method is that some teachers may just put students in groups without planning and find that the groups are not particularly successful. Some students may resist cooperative work if they do not understand the purpose.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

English for Academic Purposes

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Jumat, September 14, 2012

English for academic purposes (EAP) has been developed to teach precollege or college-level students the necessary skills and vocabulary needed to be successful at the college and university level. Such an approach is often used in intensive programs associated with colleges and universities. Traditional curriculum in this approach has often been built around the discrete language skills of reading, writing, listening, speaking, and sometimes grammar and vocabulary. More recently other programs have become more integrated or built around academic content areas. Academic skills may include teaching students to give speeches, write research papers, work in groups, read academic texts, for example. Students learn not only the English to go with these tasks, but also the discourse and rhetorical patterns specific to the target academic culture. Although vocabulary and language structure may focus on specific fields, focus is often on vocabulary and structure that is common to all academic fields as well.

Strategy of English for Academic Purposes

English Skill Level: Advanced Beginning to Advanced
Grade Level: Upper Elementary to Adult

Although there is no one specific way to approach English for Academic Purposes, most programs try to focus their curriculum around the skills and content that students will use in their college or university classes.

Teachers conduct a needs analysis of the academic skills, content, discourse, and vocabulary which students will need to be successful in an academic setting.
Teachers consider the following questions:

Will the program be built around content or discrete skills?
Are the students undergraduates, graduates, or a mix?
Are the students in one field only or several different ones?
Will students be only in EAP classes, or will they also be taking regular academic classes?
How will the teacher decide when students' English and academic skills are good enough to meet the demands of the college or university?

From the information obtained from the needs analysis as well as answers to these questions, the teacher designs a curriculum that provides the students with what they will need to know in an academic setting. The content of the curriculum might include topics such as science, psychology, and business. Skill areas might include giving speeches, reading textbooks, writing papers, working in groups, listening to lectures, and taking notes.
Teachers develop assessment instruments that will give them and other concerned parties the information needed to feel confident that students will be successful when they enter their field of study.

Applications and Examples of English for Academic Purposes

An Intermediate Speaking and Listening Class in a Discrete-Skills Program

The focus of the class is the topic of space exploration. Students are given a short exercise that lists famous events in space exploration such as when the telescope was invented, when Pluto was discovered, when the first space flight took place, when a human first walked on the moon. Students are asked to match dates with the events. As a class, students guess the dates to see if they know the answer. Students are asked if they think space exploration is a good thing and why or why not. These introductory exercises are used to discover and highlight students' knowledge about space. In addition, vocabulary or concepts that students may need to know for the upcoming lecture can be previewed. Students listen to a fairly brief lecture about space. This lecture might be given by the teacher, be on video, or be on audiocassette. Students listen only to the lecture the first time. The second time, as students listen they fill in the missing information in an outline. Students may compare their answers with other students or check their answers on an overhead the teacher displays. Students then listen a third time so they can attend again to those parts they had difficulty understanding. Students are asked what they think living in space would be like. Students are then put in groups and given time to design a space colony. Students plan and draw their colony. Once students have designed their space colony, they give a presentation about it to the rest of the class. Students can be reminded about the use of the future and the conditional tenses for their presentation. Other students ask questions about the students' colonies. Then students are asked which colony they would like to live on and why. The teacher or the students (or both together) can fill out an assessment form evaluating the students' presentations.

An Integrated Skills Course for Graduate Students Already Enrolled in Some Academic Classes

The semester course is divided up into academic topics such as demography, applied linguistics, biological sciences, marketing, and computer technology. For each academic topic, students break into groups for about a two- to three-week period and practice working in groups. Students are given information on how to disagree politely, how to make a point, how to interrupt another speaker, and so on. Students are given tasks to complete. For example, students may develop a plan for a business they hope to develop. They will do research on their line of business. They may present their plan to others to get support. This includes putting necessary information on graphs, tables, and charts and being able to explain the information. Students write up their results.

In addition, throughout the semester students will do individual projects related to their field of study. For example, graduate students may give a twenty-minute presentation on an aspect of their field that will be understood by a general academic audience. Students will also practice listening to lectures and note taking. Students will also be guided in writing academic material such as summaries, essays, and research papers. Throughout the semester students will be required to hand in various parts of their research paper such as an abstract, a thesis statement, an outline, and several rough drafts checked for structure, vocabulary, and organization and coherence. This paper can be a real paper they are writing for one of their university classes. In fact, as often as possible, assignments are related to what is actually going on in their university classes. Students are evaluated through tests that include multiple-choice questions, short-answer questions, and essay questions so that students may practice the types of exams they will likely encounter in their academic classes.

Weaknesses and Modification of English for Academic Purposes

Because EAP focuses on the particular needs of students in higher education, those students not involved in or planning on continuing their academic studies may find the academic orientation irrelevant or even boring.
Modifications can be made if you have a mix of students by including topics that all foreign language students will encounter, such as shopping, numbers, finance, and transportation.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Based Second Language Instruction

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Rabu, September 12, 2012

Content-based second language instruction (CBI) grew out of a response against curriculum built around grammar points. In CBI, the curriculum is built around a topic, theme, or subject area. Students learn another language via subject matter. CBI proponents believe that students are more likely to learn authentic and communicative language if they learn via content than if they just learn a set of grammar rules. In addition, students are more apt to be interested in language if it is contextualized and thus will learn it better. CBI has used a number of models, the three most common being a theme-based approach, sheltered classes, and adjunct classes (described below).

Strategy of Based Second Language Instruction
English Skill Level: All
Grade Level: All

Because content-based instruction is a broad approach, there are a number of strategies that can be
used. One is the theme-based model. In this model:

A topic or theme is chosen that will be of interest and relevance to the whole class.
Activities then focus around the theme. For example, if the topic is the moon, the students might read both fiction and nonfiction literature about the moon; watch a video about it; practice numbers, distances, and measurements of it; learn about and use telescopes; study the history of moon exploration; learn about the phases of the moon; and study tidal activity on the earth.
Depending on the length of the unit, students might do only a few or several different activities and exercises related to the topic of the moon.
In addition to learning the content, students would also be taught the vocabulary and language structure that are compatible with such a topic.
Students practice writing and speaking in the target language about the topic.

Applications and Examples of Based Second Language Instruction

Following are some theme-based lessons.
Body Language

The teacher asks the students if they know what the term "body language" means.
After discussing the definition, students are shown pictures of various gestures. They are asked, "What do these mean in your culture?" They are also asked what they think they mean in the United States. Students are asked for other examples.
Students read an article about body language.
After reading the article, students answer questions about the article and discuss whether body language has ever caused them difficulties.
Students review vocabulary learned so far.
Students review or are taught how to make the imperative (call a waiter, show you are hungry, tell someone you don't understand). Students are put into groups and think of situations in which members of the class might use body language. Students tell other students to use body language in certain situations.
In groups, students compare how gestures in certain cultures can have different meanings.
Students review or learn expressions of comparison such as "similar to," "different from," and "the same as."
Student groups present to the class some of the differences and similarities they have learned.
Students look back at the reading, and review some of the structures and vocabulary in the reading.
Students are assigned to write the first draft of a paper comparing body language between two cultures such as their own and the culture of the country they are visiting or to which they have moved.

Introduction to Psychology

Students are given an advice column to read.
Students are asked what they think of the problem in the advice column. Would they give the same advice? If not, what advice would they give? Do they think a psychologist would give the same advice? If not, what kind of advice might a psychologist give?
Students are asked to look for modals (can, should, must, had to, etc.) in the advice column.
Students are put into groups and asked to come up with a problem. They then ask the other groups for advice. Answers must be given using modals.
Students are given a longer passage from an introductory psychology book on the topic of frustration. Students preview the article by looking at the pictures, charts, and subheadings. Students read the article at home.
The next class period, students are asked if they have any questions about the article, including parts they did not understand.
Students are given activities to do that relate to the reading such as discussion questions, vocabulary questions, comprehension questions, outlining, and filling in graphic organizers.
In addition, students may view a video related to the topic. Students may take notes during the video and compare their notes with other class members.
Students are assigned to write about the topic of a frustrating experience they have had and what they did in reaction to that experience. To prepare for this writing assignment, students are put into groups to share stories of frustration with each other.
Students may also be given a test or quiz about the material they learned in class.

Apples
Submitted by Kelly Moen, Luther College education student

The teacher shows the students a picture of an apple orchard. The teacher also shows realia such as apples, apple seeds, and baskets. The teacher asks students what they know about apples and apple orchards:

a. What do you see in the picture?
b. Have you ever picked apples before?
c. How would you pick apples at the top of the tree?
d. Are the trees in this picture very young or several years old?

The teacher introduces students to planting and growing procedures. The teacher presents a chart to the class showing the stages of growth of a plant.
Students plant their own apple seeds.
Students are taken on a field trip to an apple orchard.
Students learn about the nutritional value of apples.
Students learn to read a recipe by making a treat from apples in class. For example, they might make apples dipped in caramel or apples with peanut butter.
Students write about what they have learned about apples.

Strengths of Based Second Language Instruction

Students are learning authentic language that is relevant to their needs.

Weaknesses of Based Second Language Instruction

Language teachers may not know enough about the content.
Adjunct classes may take a lot of extra time that teachers do not have

Teaching Learning Theories 0

English for Specific Purposes

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Senin, September 10, 2012

As English became a lingua franca worldwide, particularly in fields such as business and science, there developed a need to focus on the language needs of those people using English as an international language and to develop programs specifically to meet their needs. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) classes focus on both the structure and lexis needed for a particular field as well as the types of activities that the student is expected to perform within the profession.

Strategy of English for Specific Purposes

English Skill Level: Intermediate to Advanced
Grade Level: Secondary to Adult

The first step in ESP is to do a needs analysis of the field or profession in which the students will be working.
From the needs analysis, find the activities that the students will be required to do in English within their field. Activities might include giving speeches, reading journals, conducting board meetings, and so on.
Also include in the curriculum vocabulary, structure, spoken discourse, and rhetorical patterns that are specific to the students' field and future tasks.

Applications and Examples of English for Specific Purposes

Creating a Small Business
This activity could be used either for business students or art and design students.

Students are put into groups.
As a group, students decide which small business they would like to start. They might choose a restaurant, a travel agency, a clothing store, or any other small business.
Students decide what will need to be done to start a small business such as:

a. How to find funding
b. Where to locate the business
c. How to advertise
d. How to design and decorate the establishment

The areas of focus might depend on the specialty of the students. For example, business students might decide to concentrate on the financial aspects of the business, whereas art and design students might decide to concentrate on the design of advertising and the establishment.

Each group of students presents its business plan to the other students in the class, who can respond to the plan as potential investors might. The other students should be encouraged to ask questions of the presenting group regarding the business plan. Finally, the "investors" can explain why they would or would not approve the plan.

Preparing to Write about Art
This lesson teaches students art terminology and descriptive adjectives to help them write a critique
of a piece of art.

Students are introduced to the art design elements of line, shape, space, light, color, and texture through the viewing of visual representations that show different uses of the elements.
Students are given a reproduction of a painting and asked to analyze its design elements. Students can present their analysis orally or in writing.
Students choose different pages of a text that describes a piece of art. Students underline or write the descriptive adjectives. Students share their words with the class while the teacher writes them on the board.
The teacher then shows students a variety of art reproductions. For each reproduction, students must give one or two descriptive adjectives. Students cannot repeat what other students have said. This is to encourage students to come up with more words that can be used to describe the same object.
Students are then assigned to write a description of a piece of art.

Strengths of English for Specific Purposes

Students' real and specific needs are met.
Authentic materials are used.
ESP courses tend to be short and intense because of the narrow focus.

Weaknesses of English for Specific Purposes

Classes may be so narrowly focused that the broader needs of some students are not met.
The time, effort, and cooperation needed to do a good needs analysis may not always be available.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Lexical Approach

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Sabtu, September 08, 2012

The lexical approach was developed by Michael Lewis (The Lexical Approach, 1993) who believesthat the primary approach in foreign language teaching should be focused on the lexicon (vocabulary) of the language as opposed to using the more traditional grammatical or structural approach. He also believes that vocabulary needs to be taught directly as rather than through natural and communicative approaches that propose vocabulary will be learned inductively as students become exposed to the target language. His main thesis is that vocabulary should be taught in "chunks" instead of as individual words. These chunks are referred to as collocations. That is, words that frequently go together, such as "ancient history" not "old history" or "former history" should be learned together. Followers of the lexical approach frequently make use of concordances, computer programs that can scan large amounts of material for use of specific words and their collocations. Such information can also be found in concordance dictionaries.

Strategy of Lexical Approach

English Skill Level: Advanced Beginning to Advanced
Grade Level: Upper Elementary to Adult

Students are introduced to the concept of collocations. The teacher may do this as certain words and their collocations come up in lessons. Or teachers may give students a list of words and ask them to find them in a text as well as the words they go with. Teachers may also introduce collocations by making word charts that show with which other words the others can be used. Students may also be introduced to concordance programs on computers.
Once students are introduced to the concept of collocations, they can continue improving on this by keeping their own notebooks with lists of words and their collocations (see example that follows).
Students can also do various exercises or writing assignments in which they are asked to produce to recognize and then produce certain collocations.

Applications and Examples of Lexical Approach

Keeping a Collocation Notebook

In some ways, collocation notebooks are similar to the vocabulary notebooks that many students learning other languages keep. In a collocation notebook, however, there are few individual words listed. Instead, students keep track of words that go together with other words such as collocations and fixed expressions. The teacher may make photocopied sheets that students can use, or students can develop their own organizational system. Some collocation categories that are useful are the following:

Verbs that go with certain nouns (do homework, finish homework, complete homework, correct homework, hand in homework)
Adjectives that go with certain nouns (hard work, interesting work)
Noun + noun (transport costs, overhead costs, labor costs)
Verb + adverb (drive fast, drive carefully)
Expressions (I should emphasize that, I should point out that, I should remind you that)

Students may learn collocations as they are reading or listening. Teachers may ask students to look for collocations in a reading. Other students may add their own collocations when they know them. Teachers can also give lists of collocations to students as they come up in class. Students may locate collocations in collocation dictionaries or in concordance programs as well.

Collocation Exercise

Students can be asked to identify which words go with other words.
Student can finish set expressions.
Students can be given cards with nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs and asked to create expressions or sentences with the words on those cards.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Competency Based Approach

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Kamis, September 06, 2012

Competency-based education (CBE), an approach to adult and literacy education, began to be used in adult education ESL in the 1970s. Competency-based ESL is centered around teaching to competencies. A competency is a task-based goal to be met by the learner. Competencies frequently include basic survival skills like taking transportation, going to the doctor, and buying necessities. However, competencies could also be goals to be met by students or professionals, ranging from navigating complex workplace communication to mastering industry-specific technical skills. A competency-based approach includes an assessment of learners' needs, selection of competencies based on those needs, instruction targeted on meeting those needs, and evaluation of learners' performance in meeting the competencies. This focus on demonstrably useful skills ensures that adult learners can immediately apply their knowledge in real-world settings.

A competency-based approach continues to be the primary method used in U.S. government-funded adult education ESL programs. The two most widely known competency-based programs in the United States are: (1) SCANS, which is the Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, a report put out in 1991 by the U.S. government detailing what competencies, skills, and personal qualities are needed to succeed in the workplace, and (2) CASAS (Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System), a private organization that has created its own competencies with its own materials and assessment and is now used by a number of adult education programs in the United States. In addition, CBE is also used extensively in Australian adult ESL programs for immigrants, highlighting its effectiveness in integrating newcomers into the social and professional fabric of their new communities.

For adult learners, particularly those seeking to improve their English language skills, traditional education methods don't always hit the mark. Competency-based education (CBE) offers a refreshing alternative, focusing on equipping learners with the skills they need to thrive in real-world situations.

What is CBE and How Does it Work in Adult ESL?

CBE flips the script on traditional education. Instead of prioritizing time spent in class or rote memorization, CBE centers around achieving specific competencies, which are essentially task-based goals. These can range from navigating public transportation and healthcare systems to mastering industry-specific communication skills.

The beauty of CBE lies in its adaptability. An initial assessment pinpoints individual learner needs, allowing instructors to tailor the curriculum accordingly. Instruction then becomes laser-focused, targeting the specific competencies identified. Finally, learners are evaluated on their ability to demonstrate these competencies in practical scenarios. This ensures that the knowledge gained translates directly into tangible skills for daily life and potential workplaces.

The Benefits of CBE for Adult Learners

The advantages of CBE for adult ESL learners are numerous:

Relevance: The focus on practical skills ensures learners can immediately apply their knowledge in real-world settings, boosting confidence and motivation.
Customization: Learners are not confined to a one-size-fits-all approach. CBE caters to individual needs and learning styles, maximizing progress.
Efficiency: Time spent in class is optimized because the curriculum directly addresses the learner's goals, leading to faster skill acquisition.
Increased Engagement: The focus on practical application fosters a more engaging learning experience, keeping students motivated and invested in their progress.
CBE in Action: Leading Programs

CBE has become a cornerstone of adult ESL programs in the United States. The Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) report, for instance, outlines the competencies, skills, and personal qualities crucial for workplace success. Adult education programs leverage this framework to shape their CBE curriculum. Additionally, the Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System (CASAS) offers a comprehensive set of materials and assessments aligned with the CBE approach.

The impact of CBE extends beyond the United States. Australian adult ESL programs for immigrants heavily utilize CBE, recognizing its effectiveness in integrating newcomers into the social and professional fabric of their new communities.

As the needs of adult learners continue to evolve, CBE is poised to play an increasingly vital role. Its emphasis on practical skills, personalized learning, and measurable outcomes provides a strong foundation for adult ESL programs. By equipping learners with the tools they need to navigate daily life and professional opportunities, CBE empowers adults to reach their full potential.

Strategy of Competency Based Approach

English Skill Level: Beginning to Advanced
Grade Level: Upper Elementary to Adult

The teacher conducts a needs assessment to see how and where students will need to use English to be successful in the future.
The teacher defines tasks, or competencies, that students will need to accomplish. Examples of competencies might include requesting and giving personal information, asking for the time, practicing transactions in the post office, and making a doctor's appointment.
The teacher creates lessons and activities that will teach students how to accomplish the tasks, or competencies, that have been prescribed. Lessons might include new vocabulary, understanding and practicing dialogues, reading and filling out forms, and discussing previous experiences and future problems that might occur.
Students are evaluated on their ability to perform the designated task or competency.

Applications and Examples of Competency Based Approach

Shopping for Clothes

A picture of a clothing store with a clerk and a woman is shown to students. Students are asked, "What is happening in this picture?" If students have difficulty answering, the teacher can ask more direct questions: "Where are they?" "Who is this woman?" "What is she doing?" Students are then asked about their shopping experiences with questions such as, "Do you like to shop?" "What do you like to buy?" "Where do you shop?" "How often do you shop?" Such questions not only help students focus on the topic but also help the teacher assess what the students know and what they need to know.
Students are then shown pictures of different articles of clothing. Students review the names and colors of articles of clothing.
Students then listen to a dialogue between the shopper and the store clerk. Students may follow the written dialogue as they listen.

Clerk: Can I help you?
Shopper: Yes, I'm looking for a new dress to wear to work.
Clerk: What size do you wear?
Shopper: I wear a size 12.
Clerk: What color would you like?
Shopper: I'd like something in blue.
Clerk: How about this dress?
Shopper: No, I don't really care for that dress.
Clerk: How about this one?
Shopper: Yes, I like that one.
Clerk: Would you like to try it on?
Shopper: Yes, where is the dressing room?

(Shopper tries on the dress)

Clerk: How does it fit?
Shopper: Just fine. I think I'll get it.

Note: Within the dialogue are a number of idiomatic expressions that are used when shopping.

The teacher points out new vocabulary in the dialogue such as

Looking for
Size
How about
Don't care for
Try it on
Dressing room
Does it fit
I'll get it

Students practice parts of the dialogues. First, students practice saying individual lines as a class. Then students practice the dialogue in pairs. Then students practice shopping in pairs using the practice dialogue or their own. Students then role-play the situation.
Once students can accomplish this competency, they can go on to similar competencies such as shopping for groceries, buying clothes for children, shopping in a hardware store. Students can also go on to other topics such as going to the doctor, applying for a job, or visiting with their children's teachers.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Selasa, September 04, 2012

This approach was developed by Anna Chamot and J. Michael O'Malley to help secondary-level students make a successful transition into their regular high school classes. The cognitive academic language learning approach (CALLA) is a three-pronged approach focusing equally on academic language learning, academic content learning, and learning strategy instruction. Lessons built around academic content include various exercises that focus on language skills, study skills, and content-specific concepts. Chamot and O'Malley encourage the use of the following instructional methods and concepts in their approach: language across the curriculum, language experience approach (LEA), whole language, process writing, cooperative learning, and cognitive instruction. Although this approach began as a secondary level approach, its use has been expanded to other levels.

Strategy of Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach

A CALLA lesson is built around the following five steps:

Preparation students' background knowledge and schemata about the content being studied as well as their learning strategies are explored
Presentation the teacher presents the necessary new content and learning skills needed for the lesson
Practice students perform various activities to reinforce the material to be learned
Evaluation students evaluate their own learning
Expansion students use what they have learned and apply it to new situations

Applications and Example of Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach
A CALLA American History (Revolutionary War) Lesson

Students are given questions and exercises to help them and the teacher probe their background knowledge about the Revolutionary War. Students might be asked: What is a revolution? Has your country of origin had a revolution? Why do you think revolutions happen? Students might be shown pictures of the American Revolution's events and/or symbols and asked what they are looking at.
Students read about the American Revolution. Students are asked what they need to do to read the passage successfully. They look at the subheadings, pictures, and any preview or review questions to help them develop their learning strategies. They might be asked to predict what they think the text will be about. Students might also hear a lecture about the American Revolution, in which case, they would also be taught methods of note taking.
Students do exercises and activities related to the reading. They might answer questions about the reading, make a timeline of the events, make charts or tables to help them categorize information, or write sentences describing people or events of the Revolutionary War.
Students use a learning log to check what they know. Students mark off on a list the academic vocabulary they know, if they can use certain learning strategies, what they know about the Revolutionary War. They might also be asked questions such as: What was interesting about this lesson? What was easy? What was difficult? How can you learn what is difficult? Students are encouraged to review information they don't know.
Students expand and apply their knowledge through various activities. Students might write about a famous Revolutionary War person. In groups students might debate the pros and cons of the Revolutionary War. Students might give presentations about a famous historical event in their country.

A Beginning Level CALLA Math Lesson

Students are shown different numbers and asked to say them in English as a review of numbers.
Students are then shown simple arithmetic problems and learn the words "addition," "subtraction," "multiplication," and "division."
Students then see a number of problems and are asked to say which operation (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) they are seeing.
Students are given a worksheet that shows the different words used to express math operations such as "four plus four equals eight" or "eight minus six is two." Students are shown word problems and asked to say the problems.
Students are then given worksheets where they see word problems and write them out or see a problem written out and write it as a word problem. For example: The student sees 4 + 6 = 10. The student writes: Four plus six equals ten. Or the student reads: Seven plus two equals nine. The student writes: 7 + 2 = 9.
As an extension, students are asked to write problems using objects that they and their partners manipulate. For example, Chin has three books. He gives one book to Mohamed. They will write, "Three books minus one equals two books."
After students who are complete their activities, they will fill out a log that asks them what they learned, what they need to review, and what they else they need to know.

Weaknesses and Modifications of Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach

Students not in school may find academic content not relevant. However, the basic strategies of preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion are applicable to many teaching situations.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Whole Language Approach

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Minggu, September 02, 2012

Whole language philosophies or approaches focus on the use of authentic language that is meaningful to students, proceeding from whole to part and integrating development of language modes and domains. This approach is a constructivist philosophy of learning that places emphasis on the integration of language and content, fostering personally and academically meaningful language development. Listening, speaking, reading, and writing—the four language modes or skills—are taught as an integrated whole, with written and oral language developed simultaneously. Whole language focuses on using language, focusing on meaning first, getting students to write early and often, accepting invented spelling for beginners but expecting conventional spelling as students advance in the writing process, exposing students to high-quality literature and authentic texts from diverse written genres, allowing students to make choices in reading, and encouraging all to be voracious readers. Lessons are learner centered and meaningful to students' lives inside and outside of school. Language lessons engage students in social interaction and collaborative learning. The focus is on the social construction of meaning and understanding through the process of reading and writing. Students first acquire literacy through their own writings and share children's literature as well as experiences across the curriculum through science experiments, recipes, games, instructions for making things, math problem solving, interactive computer communications, and map reading. Language is developed for meaningful purposes inside and outside of school. Whole language avoids the practices of teaching skills in isolation (sounds, letters, grammar rules, and words) or in a strict sequence, using books with controlled vocabulary, or using worksheets and drills.

Strategy of Whole Language Approach

English Skill Level: All
Grade Level: All

This approach immerses students in a rich language and literacy environment.
The teacher provides time, materials, space, and activities for students to be listeners, speakers, readers, and writers.
The teacher focuses on the whole because the mind makes sense of or constructs meaning from experiences—whether the experiences are spoken, listened to, read, or described in writing—when they are communicated as wholes.
The teacher acts as a communication role model in listening, speaking, reading, and writing so that instruction, function, and purpose are meaningful.
The teacher creates an atmosphere of expectancy and a climate that is encouraging and supportive in which students are expected to continue their literacy development and feel comfortable doing so.

Applications and Examples of Whole Language Approach

To make the story The Little Red Hen more relevant to students' lives, the teacher could ask students about times when they've needed help but no one was willing to give them aid, or a discussion could be shared about bread—eating it, baking it, favorite kinds, and so on.
The teacher reads aloud from the big book The Little Red Hen, written in the native language to lay the foundation for initial comprehension in a bilingual classroom. If in a classroom with diverse native languages, this step is omitted.
The teacher reads aloud the English big book version of The Little Red Hen. While reading, the teacher models predicting, demonstrates by pointing left-to-right directional reading, looks at pictures for clues, uses voice projection during dialogue, and so on.
In subsequent readings, the students read (choral reading) the main dialogue sections, "Not I, said the (animal)?" and the teacher may use cloze techniques (i.e., stopping to have students fill in words). As a cloze exercise, transform the passage "Once there were four friends—a pig, a duck, a cat, and a little red hen," to "Once there were __________ friends—a pig, a _________, a cat, and a little red." Children complete the blanks using the pictures in the story as clues.
After choral reading, the teacher asks the students to retell the story and writes on sentence strips. The teacher may teach students about using dialogue (quotation marks) to indicate speaking.
Students use the sentence strips to put the story into the correct sequence.
The students make animal masks and role-play the story.
Students are allowed to check out student copies of The Little Red Hen to read at home for pleasure.
Students could create their own copies of the book or perhaps expand the original by adding more animals to the story.
Extension activity: Students could make bread or pretzels in class. Pretzels (from http://bread.allrecipes.com/az/BrdPrtzls.asp)

Ingredients
1 1/2 teaspoons active dry yeast
3/4 cup warm water (110 degrees F/45 degrees C)
1/2 teaspoon white sugar
1/4 teaspoon salt
2 cups bread flour
1 egg, beaten
2 tablespoons kosher salt

Directions
In a small bowl, dissolve yeast in warm water. Let stand until creamy, about 10 minutes.
In a large bowl, combine yeast mixture, sugar, salt, and 1 cup flour; beat well. Beat in the remaining flour, 1/2 cup at a time, until a stiff dough is formed. Place dough in a lightly oiled bowl, cover, and let rise until doubled in volume.
Preheat oven to 450 degrees F (230 degrees C). Lightly grease a cookie sheet.
Turn dough out onto a lightly floured surface and divide into 12 pieces. Roll pieces out into long sticks and form into pretzel shape. Place pretzels on prepared baking sheet. Brush with beaten egg and sprinkle with kosher salt.
Bake in preheated oven for 12 to 15 minutes, until golden brown.

Strengths of Whole Language Approach

Whole language allows interactions with a variety of texts, experiences, and activities in a classroom atmosphere that supports literacy development.

Weaknesses of Whole Language Approach

Performance can be difficult to evaluate objectively when using authentic assessment.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Natural Approach

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Jumat, Agustus 31, 2012

An approach or method developed in the 1970s by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell emphasizing that people "acquire" languages best by learning naturally like children do. Krashen and Terrell believed that comprehension should precede production and that students should not be forced to speak until they are ready. They proposed that production would emerge in stages. They believed that the course syllabus should be based on communicative goals and that activities should be planned to lower the affective filter and eliminate, as much as possible, any anxiety that students may feel about speaking a new language. In theory, if these principles are followed, students will feel comfortable with the new language and learn the language at an automatic level just as children learn their first language (L1). The approach is intended to help students acquire, as opposed to learn, a new language so that they will be able to understand and speak it automatically and fluently.

Strategy of Natural Approach

English Skill Level: Advanced Beginning to Intermediate
Grade Level: Elementary to Adult
Method: Natural Approach

The teacher speaks to the students in the target language at a level they can more or less understand. The teacher may use pictures, actions, or realia to communicate meaning.
The teacher asks questions that the students can answer. As students become more comfortable with the language, more difficult tasks such as role-plays, open-ended dialogues, discussion, and group work can be used.
Students do not have to speak until they are ready to. They can be encouraged to speak but should not be forced to do so. The focus should be on communication, and error correction should be limited and nonthreatening.

Strengths of Natural Approach

Students are more likely to participate actively and meaningfully when they feel they are ready to do so.
Students can become fluent in the target language.
Such an approach lowers the anxiety level of students, which is not only kinder but also more likely to produce positive results.

Weaknesses of Natural Approach

The approach does not address academic needs of students, including reading and writing.
Some students may need more impetus to speak.
Students, especially older learners, do not necessarily learn a second language (L2) as they learned their first language (L1).

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Literature Based Approach

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Rabu, Agustus 29, 2012

Instead of teaching reading through traditional, bottom-up approaches using basal readers, students are given the opportunity to explore reading through the use of authentic texts. There are various methods within the parameters of this approach, including literature-based discussion groups outlined here.

Strategy of Literature Based Approach

English Skill Level: Advanced Beginning to Advanced
Grade Level: Elementary to Adult

Students use authentic literature to explore various genres including realistic fiction, fantasy, historical fiction, biography, and so on.
Students work in cooperative groups for shared reading and are expected to complete various tasks individually, such as notating unfamiliar vocabulary, making predictions, participating in group discussions, and so on.
Students within the group are assigned various tasks or roles, such as discussion leader, group recorder (audio and written), word wizard, geography locator, and research specialist.
Students work together to determine various literary elements in the story—characters, plot, setting, and so on.
The teacher checks the accuracy of students' interpretations through group or individual dialogue.
Students are encouraged to make meaning by discussing various issues in the text with relevance to their lives.
A multitude of breakout activities can be incorporated after reading the text.
Assessment can be authentic or traditional.

Applications and Examples of Literature Based Approach

Students divide into groups. After the teacher presents booktalks for several books, students select the one they want to read. Students can use the "five-finger" strategy to determine whether a book is the appropriate reading level. Also, when initially starting literature groups, it is helpful to start with one book for the entire class to work through the process together. (Number the Stars by Lois Lowry is one example.)
Within the group, various roles are assigned.
Students can choose to read the book aloud or silently, meeting after reading a specified portion. The teacher can assign this, or with more autonomous groups, the students can set the pace.
The teacher wanders from group to group, listening to discussions, providing input as needed, and perhaps inquiring to ensure accuracy in comprehension.
After reading the book, students select from a multitude of activities to extend the text. Students can choose to work individually, in pairs, in a group, or on multiple projects, if time allows. The teacher initially provides help, but students can make suggestions of their own.
When students complete their projects, they share them with the class and perhaps the rest of the school community.

Strengths of Literature Based Approach

English language learners encounter authentic literary texts. This means that students read books and stories written as literature rather than specially written stories designed with controlled vocabulary to develop particular reading skills.
Students may develop a love of reading. They feel a sense of empowerment and become voracious readers.
Books are read in English.

Weaknesses of Literature Based Approach

Effective only with intermediate and advanced students.
Vocabulary can be potentially overwhelming if English language learners do not have appropriate strategies to use. Texts include words used in new ways, used colloquially, used with specific cultural referents, or used metaphorically. Teachers need to teach strategies such as inferencing to help learners.
Literature reflects cultural values, shared knowledge, and discourse organization, which may be different from that of students' native cultures.
"Speed readers" finish the books ahead of the rest. Others may be slower readers.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Language Experience Approach

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Senin, Agustus 27, 2012

Originally developed to teach reading and writing to preliterate monolingual students, this approach was later used to teach literacy skills to adults, including those learning English as an additional language. Supporters of the language experience approach (LEA) believe that students can learn to read and write by using their own level of oral vocabulary. In addition, because students are using subject matter familiar to them, the information will be relevant to their needs.

Strategy of Language Experience Approach

English Skill Level: Beginning to Intermediate
Grade Level: Primary (Lower Elementary) to Adult

The student tells a story, usually based on a real-life experience, to the teacher.
The teacher writes down the story exactly as it is told including the errors made.
The student reads the written story with the teacher helping as needed.
After the student is comfortable reading the story, individual words, grammar points, and so on may be studied.

Strengths of Language Experience Approach

Schema is already present so students have immediate understanding of text.
Students can see that the symbols of reading have personal and authentic meaning.
Students are learning literacy skills at their own level.

Weaknesses of Language Experience Approach

Because it requires some knowledge of oral L2 vocabulary, it may not work with adults or older children with limited speaking skills or who are afraid to speak in the target language.
Some believe this approach may reinforce errors if there is not enough adequate follow-up.

Modifications of Language Experience Approach

Stories may be done as a group with students giving sentences that the teacher writes on the board. Students may take turns giving sentences to create a narration. Editing can also be done as a group.
Teachers may decide to write the story (or some aspects of it) correctly at the same time as the student shares the story.
Students can be put in multilevel groups to write stories so that those with more writing skills can help those just learning.
Students can write plays or act out stories.

Teaching Learning Theories 1

Total Physical Response (TPR)

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Sabtu, Agustus 25, 2012

James Asher developed total physical response, frequently called TPR, in the 1960s and 1970s. He believed that learning new vocabulary in conjunction with corresponding motor activity would reinforce the learning of words and expressions—especially in children, but he also advocated its use with adults. Active participation also keeps students interested. Asher also believed that the use of such commands would reduce anxiety levels and make use of the right brain.

Strategy of Total Physical Response (TPR)

English Skill Level: Beginning to Intermediate
Grade Level: Elementary to Adult (although method may need to be modified for secondary and
adult English language learners)

The teacher gives commands such as

Open the door
Close the window
Touch your nose
Stand up, sit down
Draw a circle
Draw a square

The student completes the action of the command.
If the student does the command correctly, the teacher knows the student understands the command.
The student's understanding is reinforced by performing the action.

Applications and Examples of Total Physical Response (TPR)

Classroom Commands

The teacher gives the following command to all the students: "Open your book."
Students open their books.
The teacher gives another command such as, "Put your pencil on your desk."
Students put their pencils on their desks.
The teacher gives another command such as, "Raise your hands."
The teacher continues to give commands related to classroom actions. The teacher may model the actions if students have not attempted such commands or actions before. The teacher may also give commands to individual students such as, "Erase the board."
Students may also give commands or instructions to each other.

TPR Storytelling
In storytelling, TPR is used to introduce a story to students.

The teacher should select a story with plenty of action. The teacher uses TPR commands to teach vocabulary used in the story. Students can also act out commands. Students can be put in pairs to give and act out commands.
The teacher presents a mini-story (often part of a longer story) that students learn and retell or even revise. More mini-stories are presented and practiced.
The teacher presents the whole story. Students then retell the story. Students may also do various exercises related to the story such as true-false, open-ended questions, writing about the characters, and so on.
Students create their own stories. Students may write and illustrate their stories, use drama to act them out, or videotape their stories.

Strengths of Total Physical Response (TPR)

Results in lower anxiety levels among language learners.
An activity or movement reinforces language learning in authentic ways.

Weaknesses and Modifications of Total Physical Response (TPR)

In its original form, TPR may be too limited to use alone. Thus, TPR is often used at the beginning levels or as part of a more complex lesson. It is also possible that commands can be lengthened into a process. For example, the teacher can say, "draw a square with a line through it. Then draw a triangle on the right side of the square," and so on. Teachers can have students use problem-solving tasks such as showing three boxes with different pictures inside and say, "touch the box where the woman is standing."
Other modifications include having students take a more participatory role by giving commands or instructions to one another. TPR can also be done in a game form such as "Simon Says." Advocates of TPR have also developed the method into TPR Storytelling.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Critical Pedagogy

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Kamis, Agustus 23, 2012

Critical literacy is a teaching orientation that focuses on encouraging students to analyze critically a text's purpose and the culture and power structure it represents. It also encourages students to choose is sues for their classroom study that have real meaning in their own lives. Paulo Friere, a Brazilian educator, is often viewed as the founder of this orientation (Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1970). He believed that education and knowledge could only have power when they help learners liberate themselves from oppressive conditions. Although some approaches to critical literacy only ask students to come away with a better understanding of society and their role in it, other approaches encourage students to go a step further and become activists in their own communities.

Strategy of Critical Pedagogy

English Skill Level: Advanced Beginning to Advanced

Grade Level: Secondary to Adult

Also Called: Critical Literacy, Participatory ESL, Problem-Posing Education

The teacher encourages students and listens as they discuss their everyday lives.
The teacher facilitates open discussion and encourages students to express concerns.
The teacher assesses students' situation to help them determine topics that truly concern them.
The teacher chooses a picture, story, or song to present to students to help them take an objective
look at their experiences and concerns.
Students meet in small groups, called culture circles, to discuss and propose a project related to their concerns.
Students plan a project, which often includes social action, to improve their situation.

Applications and Examples of Critical Pedagogy

My Neighborhood

The teacher asks students, "What do you do everyday?" Students answer and may also ask other students. The teacher helps students with vocabulary and structure as students talk about their typical day. The teacher and other students can ask students more questions about their day, including questions about what they like to do and why or what they don't like to do and why.
The teacher shows a picture of a city neighborhood. He or she asks students what they see. Again, the teacher helps students with vocabulary and structure as needed. The teacher then asks students, "What do you like about this neighborhood?" "What don't you like about it?" "What does your neighborhood look like?" "What do you like about your neighborhood?" "What don't you like about?"
Students, together or in groups, decide on a problem they want to solve in their neighborhoods. They may do this as a class project to be presented to their teacher and the other students, or they may decide to continue with their project outside of class.

Diversity in Our Town

Submitted by Becky Sutter, Luther College education student

The objective of this lesson is for learners to observe and discuss the amount of help that different public places provide for people who speak languages other than English. The learner identifies various ways that public places could be more helpful to people who speak languages other than English.
During the week before the lesson, the teacher encourages the students to pay attention to things that public institutions do or do not do to make it easier for people who speak a language other than English. Students should look for signs written in other languages, for pictures, and for diagrams. Students should also look to see whether public institutions like schools, doctor's offices, and stores have bilingual employees. The teacher could also bring in pamphlets and other materials put out by various institutions for students to analyze.
The teacher begins the lesson by reading Marianthe's Story: Painted Words/Spoken Memories by Aliki (Greenwillow Books, 1998). This is a book in two parts about a girl who immigrates to the United States. She shares her story of the difficulties she faced in her first days in a classroom where everyone speaks a different language from hers. The teacher asks the students the following questions:

What were some problems that Marianthe had when she didn't understand the language that her teacher and friends were speaking?
What things were hard for her to understand?
What things could she understand?
How did she communicate?

The teacher asks the students if they ever felt like Marianthe and asks them to share stories of times when they or their family have had problems because of language barriers. For those students who may feel uncomfortable discussing their own difficulties, this part of the discussion should be optional.
The teacher will ask students to get into preassigned heterogeneous small groups. The teacher instructs the students to discuss observations that they made over the week about how public institutions do or do not provide help for non-English speakers. Students construct a chart of their observations as follows: Helpful, Wells Fargo Banks has signs, in Spanish, Hmong, and English Not Helpful, Johnson Health Care has no doctors or translators who speak Spanish
The teacher asks each group to think of solutions to their observations listed in the "Not Helpful" column.
In a follow-up lesson, students write a letter to one of the institutions that they identified as nonhelpful, giving suggestions on how it could better serve non-English speakers. Students are given the option of whether to mail the letter.

Analyzing a Text for Bias

Students are given a newspaper article about a current event or a topic that concerns them. The article is previewed by looking at the title, any subtitles, and the pictures. Students are asked what they know about this and what they think about this topic.
Students read the article more thoroughly. They are asked to write down what they think are facts and what they think are opinions. More advanced students can be asked to point out terms that show bias or emotional overdramatization. Students are asked their opinions about the topic. They are asked their opinion about the writing. Is it fair? Is it biased? What has been left out? What should have been included?
Students, individually, in groups, or as a class, write a letter to the editor responding to the article. Students may decide whether they want to send the letter to the newspaper.

Strengths of Critical Pedagogy

Instruction is grounded in the experiences of students and teachers, not a standardized curriculum controlled by textbook publishers, teachers, and administrators.
Meaningful conversation is the norm because the dialogue is based on the experiences of students and teachers.
Students are partners with teachers in learning.

Weaknesses and Modifications of Critical Pedagogy

Some students may be uncomfortable discussing issues that are too personal or too political. Teachers should try to keep the discussion at an objective, general level so that students do not feel compelled to discuss personal issues if they do not wish to do so. Students should never be put on the spot nor should they be required to go public with activities unless they desire to attend them.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Family Literacy

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Selasa, Agustus 21, 2012

Family literacy is based on the belief and related research that students will be more successful in school if their parents prepare and support them. Family literacy was first developed to prepare emergent readers for school success by giving information and activities that parents could use with their children to help support their literacy efforts. During the 1980s, family literacy activities became a part of the ESL curriculum in both adult education ESL programs and K-12. As ESL family literacy programs evolved, it became apparent that schools also needed to learn about the cultures and beliefs of the multicultural communities they were serving. Thus, at least in ESL programs, family literacy is viewed as a two-way process (Auerbach, 1989). Some activities may include having parents and children learn about the U.S. education system and the expectations of their particular school system. Other activities may include having parents read or tell traditional stories to their children, having children read stories to their parents in English or their native language, or having families create videos or Web pages about themselves and their communities.

Strategies of Family Literacy

English Skill Level: All

Grade Level: All

Family literacy can include any number of approaches and activities. The following strategies give some general guidelines.

Complete a needs analysis that includes both the perceived needs of the school system as well as the strengths, beliefs, and needs of the community being served. One approach to discover the needs of the community is to meet with local leaders. Another way is to be aware of the concerns of the community that may be expressed in students' writing or discussions.
Develop activities and programs that meet the needs of all concerned, including parents, students, teachers, and other members of the school and community.
Assess activities and programs to see if they are really meeting the needs of all concerned and fostering an environment that helps students achieve in school.

Strenghts of Family Literacy

Parents and guardians are actively involved in the education of their children.
Parents and guardians may participate in shared learning experiences, thus conveying the message to their children that education is valid.

Weaknesses and Modifications of Family Literacy

Family literacy programs that come only from the top down may prove unsuccessful if they conflict with the culture and practices of the group being served. Therefore, it is important that family literacy programs include the needs and practices of everyone involved.
Individual teachers may not be in the position to create family literacy programs, but they can use some of the activities used in established programs to develop connections between the classroom, students, and parents.

Teaching Learning Theories 0

Experiential Language Teaching and Notional Functional Approach

Ahmad Fawzan Rohman Minggu, Agustus 19, 2012

Experiential Language Teaching

Experiential language teaching (ELT) initially grew out of educational and psychological theories proposing that a subject is learned best if students are involved in concrete, hands-on experiences with the subject. The American educator John Dewey was one advocate of the method. The belief is that students will learn better if they use the language as opposed to being passive receptors of artificial language. It is also thought that students will be able to analyze and discover their own information about the topic and language use as they are involved with tasks or projects. In language teaching, ELT creates situations in which students use their new language instead of just learning about it. This method is seen as particularly well suited for use with children but is now being practiced with students of all ages in many learning situations.

Strategy of Experiential Language Teaching

English Skill Level: Advanced Beginning to Advanced

Grade Level: Elementary to Adult

Also Called: Task-based Teaching, Project-based Teaching

ELT's main strategy is to have students be involved in doing. An experiential language lesson can be conducted in multiple ways, and a number of different activities can be included under the umbrella of ELT. For example, realia, show-and-tell, games, and videos are examples of teacher-fronted ELT activities. Because the focus of ELT is more often on the student than on the teacher, however, student-centered activities such as hands-on projects, cross-cultural experiences, field trips, role-plays, and simulations are frequently used ELT activities. In addition, poetry, songs, and drama may also be considered ELT activities.

The teacher identifies a task or activity that will help students learn the language needed in their particular context.
The teacher plans how the task should be implemented including any necessary language items that may need to be introduced or reviewed for the students to perform the task or activity.
The teacher explains the task to the students.
The students discuss the task and identify their roles.
The students do their task or activity.
The students perform or demonstrate what they have learned or accomplished.

Examples and Applications of Experiential Language Teaching

The student does an exercise in which he or she is asked to comprehend questions with question words such as what, where, how, who, when, and so on.
The student listens to examples of job interviews.
The student and teacher analyze the grammar, vocabulary, and discourse of the interviews.
The teacher or the students (or both together) create the dialogue for their own interview.
The students practice and then role-play interviews.

Strength of Experiential Language Teaching

Students are involved in actually using the language in authentic situations.

Weaknesses and Modifications of Experiential Language Teaching

Experiential activities must be carefully thought out with their goals and pedagogical purposes kept in mind or experiential activities may end up having little or no educational value. See also: Cooperative Language Learning; Whole Language

Notional-Functional Approach

The Council of Europe developed this approach in the 1970s to serve as a paradigm for language teaching in Europe. In this model, the content of what should be taught focuses on notions and functions as opposed to a grammar-based curriculum. Notions are content areas such shopping, health, travel, personal identification, and so on. Functions are how we use language such as expressing opinions, asking for advice, apologizing, and so on. Concepts presented in this approach have been subsumed by experiential language teaching.

Strategy of Notional-Functional Approach

English Skill Level: Advanced Beginning to Advanced
Grade Level: Elementary to Adult

The following format is often used:

A dialogue focusing on certain functions and notions is presented.
Students practice the dialogue with classmates.
Students may create their own dialogues for role-playing.
Students may reinforce usage through assignments in which they choose or fill in the appropriate words in a written dialogue.
Students may expand on the previous tasks by going into the community and practicing "real-life" dialogues.

Strengths of Notional-Functional Approach

Pragmatic, authentic use of language is emphasized.
The approach helps students to understand different registers of language.

Weaknesses of Notional-Functional Approach

The approach can be too limited with little focus on academic or professional needs and skills.

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Cooperative language learning Concept

Strategy of Cooperative Language Learning

Applications and Examples of Cooperative Language Learning

Strengths of Cooperative Language Learning

Weaknesses of Cooperative Language Learning

What is CBE and How Does it Work in Adult ESL?

The Benefits of CBE for Adult Learners

Strategy of Competency Based Approach

Applications and Examples of Competency Based Approach

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